Rites of Passage Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Rites of Passage - Research Paper Example This gives him the energy and spirit to enter the next stage with valor and delight. The theme behind is that such rites help us stay connected to our natural events of life or life cycle. A person is able to go through a happy flashback of his life when he thinks in old age how cheerfully he entered each stage and coped with the hardships that come with every phase. This paper intends to compare and contrast the rites of passage in modern American and Indian cultures. Modern American society celebrates many rites of passage, like baby showers, bar mitzvahs, quinceaneras, and school graduations. There are very few definite events that mark a person’s shift from adolescence into adulthood. We see an absence of clearly defined rites of passage in the contemporary culture, which have prevailed in olden times in America. Indian culture also does not have very clearly defined rites of passage except some important ones like birth, marriage and funeral. However, there are some simil arities that both cultures share, for example grief is symbolized with color. American society relates black with grief and Indians link white with sadness. For example, on funerals, Americans wear black and Indians wear white. There are more differences in the carrying out of the rites of passage than similarities, in the two cultures. ... The expectant mother is dressed in a heavy dress with a lot of garlands. Elderly ladies shower blessings on her, and women share tips and tricks of mothering a child. The home deity is worshipped. The mother is given the gifts which are meant for her and not the baby. American culture celebrates adolescence ceremonies both for boys and girls, to honor their stepping into puberty. The most prominent adolescent rite of passage celebrated in America is the quincearena. Quinceanera celebrates a girl’s fifteenth birthday thus commemorating her past fifteen years into a get-together where people related to her make merry and congratulate her for her coming adulthood (Alvarez). Her journey from childhood to adulthood is recollected and she transforms from a naughty little kid into a delicate, pretty lady. The invited families are encouraged to select the customs that have special meaning to them and to add to the customs as they wish. That is what makes the celebration unique and ver y special. In contrast, in Indian culture, there is no such ceremony that celebrates the passing of fifteen years or steeping of a girl or boy into the sixteenth year of life. American practices have more or less become dependent on the economical and psychological aspects of life. For example, funeral practices in America depict true picture of capitalism and materialism. Corpse is displayed in the public for last viewing. This is a general acceptance of the fact that death is expected of all human beings and none of us resist to it. Corpses, nowadays, are prepared with makeup and expensive clothes before burial. Memorial services and cremations are also in practice. Hence, American funeral is an organized and

Outbreak Of One Of The Conflicts In Africa History Essay

Outbreak Of One Of The Conflicts In Africa History Essay Africa from time immemorial has experienced numerous forms of conflicts ranging from ethnic confrontations to interstate wars. The idea of war still plays a veritable role in the post colonial Africa as well as in the international politics. An understanding of the situation in Africa has proved that most of these wars have been fought on the African soils and have had devastating effects on the continent and the world at large. Examples of these wars include Rwanda, Sudan, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ivory Coast and just to name a few. These wars have greatly affected the African continent especially the countries involved as it has reduced the economies of these countries to nothing but a shadow on their own. It is obvious that most of these wars are taken place but in the developing countries and therefore leaves one with the question, whether the wars can be seen as a consequence of poverty or is poverty the consequence of war? To my opinion, war is not a solution to confli ct looking at the aftermath of the war, the vulnerabilities of the women and children, the political and economic imbalance of the states. In this light, the international community should seek ways of avoiding the outbreak of such wars especially in the developing countries. In this paper, I will analyzed the outbreak of one of the conflict in Africa which could have escalated to a full scale military conflict between two countries, had it not been settled in a unique showcase of conflict management by the UN. The conflict in question is the Cameroon vs. Nigeria claim of sovereignty over the potentially oil rich Bakassi peninsula, which almost trigger to an interstates war and sends fear and uncertainty across the two nations. B. G. Ramcharan describes the role played by the former UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan in maintaining peace between the Republic of Cameroon and the Federal Republic of Nigeria and in settling the dispute over the Bakassi peninsula, another fascinating story of conflict prevention at work in practice. The signing of the Green Tree Agreement by both countries enabled both countries to adhere to the ruling passed by the International Court of Justice (ICJ), officially put to an end to the Nigeria occupation of the peninsula and fin ally led to the peaceful handover of the occupied areas by the Nigeria military to Cameroon. President Obasanjo Olusegun of Nigeria clearly described the way the conflict was handled in the following words: Our agreement today is a great achievement of conflict prevention, which practically reflects its cost-effectiveness when compared to the alternative of conflict resolution its significance, therefore, goes much beyond Nigeria and Cameroon. It should represent a model for the resolution of similar conflicts in Africa, and I dare say, to the world at large. For most conflicts especially in Africa, has been as a result of natural resources and the politics play by the international community for their own interest which more often has fuel the violent conflicts. I will seek to analyze in this paper the historical background of the contested area leading to the outbreak of hostilities. It will be follow suit with the underlying causes of the conflicts in part 4 and part five will shed more lights on how the conflict was resolved at the level of the ICJ and managed at the UN following the implementation of the famous Green-Tree Accord signed by both countries. While part six will emphasize on the conclusion with the way forward of ensuring that both countries respect the terms of the green-Tree Agreement and the unique showcase of conflict management and resolution achieved. 2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The Bakassi peninsula is an island located along the eastern end of the Gulf of Guinea between latitudes 8 °20 and 9 °08E. The area is greatly made up of a low-lying, mangrove and swampy area with a population of approximately 150,000 to 300,000 inhabitants, as of 2005. The island is highly inhabited with the indigenous people of the Efik tribe, which they claimed to belong to the Federal Republic of Nigeria. The peninsula is a veritable ground for fishing activities and other maritime wildlife activities, for the simple fact that two great ocean currents meet here that is the cold Benguela Current and the warm Guinea Current, has really made it possible for fishing activities to be the livelihood of the inhabitants. The historical background of the peninsula goes back to the colonial period after the arrival of the European colonial master to Nigeria in the middle of the 19th Century, the King of the Old Calabar kingdom entered into a treaty of Protection with the Queen of England on September 10, 1884. The territory covering this region was at this time under the control of the King of the Old Calabar Kingdom. So in signing this treaty, it means he has officially ceded the territory to the British as a protectorate. In this respect, Britain was free to carry out any activity and equally exercised whatever she deems fit in the territory. The claim of sovereignty of the Bakassi peninsula is one of the numerous conflicts in Africa concerning border disputes. This however, should be in some extent put on the shoulders of the former colonial masters who partitioned Africa without taking into considerations of the ethnic groupings, geography and demography of the area, history, language and socio-cultural affiliations of the people. This has really hampered the integrity and sovereignty of most countries in Africa, as most often people from the same ethnic grouping happen to found themselves on two different colonial territories and governed by different colonial powers. The historical background of the Bakassi peninsula can be traced back during the era of colonialism. The Germans were the first colonial master to colonized Cameroon not until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, which saw the defeat of the Germans by the French and English in Cameroon. Before the outbreak of the First World War, the European powers having colonial territories were largely interested in securing their interests instead of the colonial people they claimed they were civilizing. A country like Germany were only interested in securing for itself the vast territorial waters in order to keep the huge amount of shrimps and other maritime wildlife found in this water for herself. In order to avoid conflict of interest amongst the colonial powers, Germany enter into an agreement with the British who were at this time the colonial master of Nigeria, limiting Britains expansion to the east, while Britain on the other hand required an undisturbed and free sea passage to Calabar, which was an important commercial seaport in eastern Nigeria. This agreement was later code name the Anglo German Agreement of 1913, which clearly defined the exact demarcation of the borders between Cameroon and Nigeria. The first part of the treaty entitled: The Settlement of the Frontier between Cameroon and Nigeria, from Yola to the Sea, clearly situate the territory of Bakassi under the jurisdiction of the Germans. The second part entitled: The Regulation of Navigation on the Cross River, placed the navigable portion of the offshore border of the Bakassi peninsula to Britain. Article 21 of the Anglo-German Treaty of 1913, which stipulates the exact position of the border: From the centre of the navigable channel on a line joining Bakassi Point and King Point, the boundary shall follow the centre of the navigable channel of the Akwayafe River as far as the 3-mile limit of territorial jurisdiction. For the purpose of defining this boundary, the navigable channel of the Akwayafe River shall be considered to lie wholly to the east of the navigable channel of the Cross and Calabar Rivers. This however, proves that from 1913, after the signing of the Anglo-German Treaty and onwards, British and German maps clearly show the Bakassi peninsula in Cameroon. Following the dramatic twist of event which saw the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, the French and the English decided to extend the war in German colonial territories in Africa, aimed at fighting the Germans in their African colonial territories. At the end of the war, Germany lost all her colonies in Africa including Cameroon to the allied powers. Cameroon was ruled as a mandated territory under the League of Nations and later partitioned in 1919, into two territories among the British and French. The French took 4/5 of the territory called French Cameroons and the British get 1/5 of the territory called British Cameroons. The Franco-British Agreement of July 1919, placed the territory of Bakassi and the rest of British Cameroons under the mandate of Britain. The British introduced the system of indirect rule in their territory of British Cameroons as an integral part of Nigeria with respect to the borders agreements laid down in 1913. In 1931, a further agreement between both powers was signed to further codify the treaty of 1919. The two Cameroons that is French and English Cameroons were ruled as a mandated territory by France and Britain till the outbreak of the Second World War. With the collapse of the League of Nations and the subsequent end of the Second World War, the mandated territories of the British Cameroons and French Cameroons were placed under the United Nations Organization which succeeded the League of Nations as Trust Territories. Worthy of note here is that the agreement creating these Trusteeship territories re-ratified the Anglo-German treaties of 1913 demarcating the borders between Cameroon and Nigeria. Again maps produced during this period placed Bakassi under the sovereignty of Cameroon. It should be noted here, that the British Cameroons was divided into two parts namely British Northern and British Southern Cameroons respectively, with Bakassi falling under the competence of Britain Southern Cameroons. In the advent for the fight for independence in the late 1950s across Africa, tensions have grown in the territory of British Cameroons. In the light of this growing tensions for independence, the United Nations requested Britain to carry out a plebiscite in the territories under her jurisdiction. British Northern Cameroon and British Southern Cameroon were to exercise their rights and willingness as to which country they would like to join and become independent. A plebiscite was held in British Northern Cameroons as Do you wish to attained independence by joining the Federal Republic of Nigeria or by joining the Republic of Cameroon. The outcome of the result of the plebiscite was that British Northern Cameroons voted to achieve independence by joining the Federal Republic of Nigeria. The events of the political parties and their divided opinions made the plebiscite to be postponed in British Southern Cameroons. It was only on February 11th, 1961, that British Southern Cameroons voted to join the already independent Republic of Cameroon (former French Cameroons). It should also be noted here that at the point of independence, Bakassi was a territory under the jurisdiction of Cameroon. This can be seen from the fact that Bakassi itself has 21 polling stations and 73% of the population voted to become independent by joining the Republic of Cameroon. So there is no gainsaying that Bakassi was and remain a territory in Cameroon. The Bakassi peninsula is an area that was of no interest to the two nations, as the territory has been long forgotten and was not an issue looking back at the afore-mentioned paragraphs. It became a centre point of focus after the alleged discovery of oil by some foreign experts. As a result of the suspicion that Bakassi have a huge oil reserve, Nigeria was the first to claim sovereignty of the peninsula and immediately deploy her military in the territory to mark her presence and ownership. This dramatic twist of event gave way for the look back of the Anglo-German Treaty of 1913, which clearly defines and demarcates the maritime borders of the two countries and which both countries accepted it. In the wake of this post independent period, both countries sought way of regulating the colonial agreements of 1913, signed by the colonial powers. Leaders of both countries exchanges visits as can be seen in April 1971, the Nigeria Head of State, General Gowon accompanied with his collabor ators visited Cameroon and meet with his Cameroonian counterpart Amadou Ahidjo, in the capital city Yaoundà ©, to discuss the issue. The outcome of this meeting was the signing of the Coker-Ngo Line delimiting the navigable portion offshore border of the two countries, thereby reaffirming the 1913 agreement. Both Heads of States were very satisfied with the outcome of the meeting not only after General Gowon of Nigeria, hearing the advices from his advisers, reverse the decision arrived at the meeting. This trigger a second meeting as General Gowon again paid a second visit to the President Ahidjo of Cameroon at Maroua city in July 1975, in order to correct the wrongs of the Coker-Ngo Line referred in the 1913 agreement. Worthy of note here is that at this point in time, the sovereignty of Bakassi was not the issue, as the meetings were out to understand the colonial borders. Gowon was overthrown shortly after his visit to Cameroon in a military coup in July 1975, General Murtala Muhammed was the new Head of State of Nigeria and he was very strategic. In order to have the support of the Nigeria bulk population, he convinced them to believe that General Gowon has given Bakassi to Cameroon as a compensation for the assistance Cameroon played in the Nigeria Civil War. He goes further to reject the authenticity of the 1971 and 1975 agreements between Gowon and Ahidjo that it has not be ratified by the military council. He too was killed in a military coup just a year after and was replaced by General Olusegun Obasanjo. What a coincidence here that President Obasanjo was Nigeria Head of state during this period and he still re-emerges again as president when hostilities break out between the two countries and help to brokered peace by ensuring that Nigeria police and soldiers withdraw from the territory in accordance with the Green-Tree Agreement of 2006. 3. THE EMERGENCE OF HOSTILITIES As earlier discuss above, the obvious reasons for most violent conflict have been natural resources conflict, territorial and ethnicity, and political and economic. The case of the Bakassi conflict was as a result of the colonial legacy left behind by the colonial powers without taking consideration of the indigenous population. As also said above the Bakassi peninsula came into the lime line after the alleged discovery of huge volume of oil reserves by some Chinese experts. Cameroon and Nigeria share a 1600km long border running from Lake Chad in the north down to Bakassi in the south and a maritime boundary meandering into the Gulf of Guinea. It is worth noted here that with all the different borders that Cameroon share with Nigeria, it is only the Bakassi peninsula which has spark tension. This can be seen as a result of the oil discovery in that area and the water which was a veritable ground for fishing. During the 70s, minor tensions have been building up in the claim of ownership of the territory. Clashes took place where some human lives were lost and on May 16, 1981, the first major form of direct violence occur when the Cameroon National Radio announced that three Nigeria patrol boats have violated and entered the Cameroonian territorial waters in Bakassi up to Rio del Rey, and open fire on the Cameroonian army. This act was widely condemned in Cameroon and in retaliation; five Nigerian soldiers were killed by the Cameroonian soldiers. This incident brought a lot of suspicion between the two countries as both countries were accusing the other for causing the incident. While Cameroon on their part accused Nigeria that they were exploiting the matter politically by blaming Cameroon for the incident, Nigeria on their part, insisted that the incident took place along the Akwayafe River. The Nigeria claimed that the incident took place at the Akwayafe River means that they have not a cknowledge the maritime border set down at the Anglo-German Treaty of 1913, thus a gross violation. So Cameroon immediately apologizes for the deaths of those five soldiers and promised to pay reparations. This matter was resolved diplomatically and put to rest. But it has triggered the question of sovereignty over the territory. Things take a dramatic turn in the advent of multi party politics in Cameroon in the 1990s. Anglophone Cameroonians started feeling of been marginalized and under-developed. They started asking for their own autonomy and possible Bakassi been a territory under the English speaking part of Cameroon was a big concern to the government of Cameroon. So there was need to consolidate the entire sovereignty of the territory under Cameroon administration. In order to fight this Anglophone antagonism in Cameroon, the government became so hard on the Anglophones especially the Nigerians who have been living in the Anglophone communities for decades doing businesses. Through intimidation and high taxes, many Nigeria traders were forced to leave Cameroon. But the most deliberate incident that fully lead to the occupation of the territory and sends fear of an impending military conflict between the two countries occur in February 1994. At this point in time, Nigeria had deployed 1000 soldiers to Bakassi on the pretext that they were out to protect the Nigerian Traders and fishermen against the continuous Cameroonian Gendarmerie harassment. The deployment of Nigerian troops was not welcome by Cameroon and it eventually break out to an open fire from both sides. It led to many casualties and deaths on civilian population and soldiers from both countries. Cameroon has lost closed to 40 soldiers and many of its soldiers have been taken as pris oners of war by Nigeria. It was this bloody incident that prompted Cameroon to seize the ICJ for adjudication. A complaint was filed on March 29, 1994 to the ICJ. Whether due to a sense of premonition of defeat or due to the fact that many Nigerians were aware of the Bakassi lie, the Nigeria government criticizes the government of Cameroon for taking the matter to the UN. The pointed out that they would have prefer the matter be settled through a bilateral negotiations. They go as far as challenging the competence of the ICJ for lack of jurisdiction in handling the matter. While the matter was pending at the ICJ, fighting was still going on between the two countries. The Nigerian government again deploys another 1000 troops in February 1996. This last deployment of soldiers was the last major incident that shows sign of an impending full scale military war. The Nigerian soldiers invaded and occupied the territory of Bakassi despite the fact that the case was pending at the ICJ. Record holds it that by May 1996, more than 50 Nigerian soldiers had lost their lives and several others taken as prisoners of war according to diplomatic sources. One of the most leading African magazines, The Jeune Afrique has analyzed the situation by saying that the prerequisite for a major military conflict were all present in the case of Bakassi. It went further to analyze the strategic economic importance of the territory to both countries and as a pivotal factor for the cause of the conflict. As tensions continued to grow on the ground with the military presence of both countries in the territory, the government of Cameroon called on the ICJ to institute measures to halt down the fighting. The ICJ immediately asked both countries to stop the fighting while waiting for the final ruling on the matter. But that notwithstanding, both countries still maintain the presence of their military believing that it might work in their favor for the rightful owner of the territory. 4. THE CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT The claim of sovereignty over the peninsula between the Republic of Cameroon and the Federal Republic of Nigeria is one the several violent conflicts that have plagued Africa for a very longtime as I mentioned in the preceding chapters. It was one of an interstate state war that could have escalated to a full blown war if not of the high sense of responsibilities on the parts of the UN on one hand and the countries concern on the other hand. The causes of the conflict are discussed below. 4.1. Economic factors It is evident that economic factors might have stemmed up the conflict over the ownership of the territory. If we go back to the Anglo-German Treaty of 1913, we can see that both countries were more or less not interested in the area. Nigeria under British rule have surrender the area to the Germans who were at that time ruling Cameroon. British Nigeria ceded this territory to the German in 1913, and even after independence, Nigeria still did not made any claim to the territory. Cameroon on her part, knew and sees the peninsula as its territory but failed to carry out any development in the area. The government of Cameroon did not put up any administrative structure in the area to indicate that the rule the place. They equally left the place at the mercy of the dominant Nigeria indigenous population to carry out their trading and fishing activities along the peninsula with little or no control except the arbitrary tax collection from the people by the authorities of Cameroon. This point is to bring out the picture of the peninsula at that time, but things take a dramatic turn when during the late 70s and 80s, there was an alleged discovery of huge volume of oil reserves around the Rio del Rey area of the peninsula. A good number of foreign multi-national companies have carried out surveys in the peninsula and came out with the reports that the territory may indeed be a treasure of immeasurable economic value. The discovery of oil reserves was not the only determinant economic factor that almost plunged both countries to a war. The fact that Bakassi peninsula is situated between two great oceans i.e. the cold Benguela current and the warm Guinea current, makes it a veritable ground for fishing. It also harbors a wide variety of fishes and other maritime wildlife creatures. According to the internet encyclopedia, the Wikipedia, the fertility of the Bakassi peninsula as a fishing ground is comparable only to Newfoundland in North America and Scandinavia in Western Europe. It was as a result of these economic benefits i.e. the prospect of potential oil reserves and securing the fishing rights, that the Germans were so desperate on keeping the peninsula to themselves during the 1913 agreement. It would not be a gainsaying that economic factors attracted the attention of both countries to claim sovereignty of the peninsula, judging from the discovery of oil reserves and the sale of fishing rights. 4.2. Political reasons The Cameroon and Nigeria claim of sovereignty over Bakassi also has a political manoveuvres, i.e. political reasons also contributed to the conflict. It is believed that the political leaders of both countries wanted to use Bakassi as a means to divert public opinion from their respective home countries. This is evident of the fact that there was growing unpopularity of the leaders of both countries. They wanted to shift the public attention to Bakassi so that their citizens will forget about their worries at home when engaged in a full scale war. Both governments have failed to address the economic problems, unemployment, bad governance, bribery and corruption, lack of social services and the bad Human Rights records they hold. Cameroon under President Amadou Ahidjos human rights records was not a good one as he was notorious for the violation of human rights during his time as president. Examples of his bad Human Rights violation is the killing of more than 25,000 people during the UPC revolt in the 1960s as reported by Albert Mukong and Mongo Beti. Then came President Paul Biya who succeeded Ahidjo in 1982 and is still on seat. Under Biya, the economy has faced a severe economic crisis in the mid 80s that saw the currency been devalued. The salaries of normal civil servants was reduced to about 70% while those of the army was increase, and that is why the army is so loyal to the president and do not plan to overthrown him in a coup. On the part of Nigeria, the situation was not too different from Cameroon, but the prominent problem that Nigeria was undergoing before the return to civilian rule was the successive military coups that has seen their governments from time to time been toppled. In fact, Nigeria holds worlds record for the highest number of military coups and counter coup attempts. These coups have led to the deaths of thousands of civilians and soldiers. Looking at her human rights records, nearly all the successive governments have had a very bad human rights record. They are noted for killing their political opponents, an example is the assassination of the minority leader Ken Saro Wiwa and nine others in November 1995. The unreasonable imprisonment of acclaimed winner of the presidential election of 1992 Moshood Abiola and the events leading to his death while in prison still remain a fact to be told. Even the brutal murder of Abiolas wife made the government unpopular. It very evident from the above mentioned paragraphs that both Cameroon and Nigeria had nothing to ride home with because the governments of both countries were facing internal and severe ethnic nationalism and economic fallout. They believe that diverting the peoples mind into an external crisis will work in their favors. They made their citizens to believe that Bakassi was worth fighting for i.e. to defend their fatherland. 4.3. National and human securities Security issues have been very vital and play an important role in the peninsula, as such were one of the causes of the claim of sovereignty over Bakassi. This is true to the fact that during 1884, the Chief of Old Calabar signed a Treaty of Protection ceding the territory (Bakassi) to the Britain. Britain thereafter ceded the territory during the 1913 Treaty to German Kamerun in order to secure a safe passage to the port of Calabar and also reassuring the Germans that she will not made any further advancements to the east. Security in the wider sense could so also be seen in the domain of national security and human security. The former been the security of the states sovereignty and the latter been the security of the citizens. So in this light, both countries were fast to advance security reasons for the military occupation of the peninsula. Nigeria lay claims that she invaded Bakassi to protect her citizens who were doing business and carry out fishing activities in the area against the continuous harassment from the Cameroonian forces, while Cameroon on her part, claimed that the obvious reason was to protect the territorial integrity of the state as she claims Nigeria has violated its sovereignty and posed a threat to her national security. 4.4. Natural resources Natural resources have been the cause of several violent conflicts in the developing countries. The question is can natural resources be seen as a curse or a blessing. This is a territory which was out of the discussion tables of both country, but soon became a bone of contention to the countries immediately after the discovery of oil reserves or black gold as is commonly refer to in Africa. Many oppressive regimes will want to be in full control of the natural resources. For the fact that another border region which is the Lake Chad between Cameroon and Nigeria is gradually disappearing because of over used by the neighboring countries such as Cameroon, Nigeria, DR Congo, Tchad and Equatorial Guinea. With the assurance that the Bakassi peninsula is blessed with natural resources such as oil and fishes, both countries divert their attention there claiming sovereignty. 4.5. Territorial integrity The territorial integrity of the peninsula also plays a very important role for both countries as they believed it was the responsibility of the state to protect the sovereignty of its territory against any form of external threat from its neighbors. So we can see here that the Bakassi conflict was an interstates military conflict aim at protecting the sovereignty of the territory as both countries claimed. The government of Cameroon was more than ever ready to defend and protect the sovereignty of the Bakassi people against an impending military occupation from Nigeria. None of the two countries was ready to let go off the territory, as Nigeria on her part, was sending a warning threat that they are very much ready to protect Nigeria citizens leaving in the area from arbitrarily harassment from the Cameroon Gendarmes and as such protecting the sovereignty of the territory. 4.6. Socio-cultural aspects The territory under question was largely inhabited by the Efik indigenous people who see themselves as belonging to the Federal Republic of Nigeria. They made up about 90% of the population and would not understand why they should be forced to be governed by Cameroon in case the ruling of the Hague was in favor of Cameroon. This is a territory that has been long forgotten by the government of Cameroon with no social structure put in place to make it look like a Cameroon territory. Nigeria on their part has built some few schools in the area and putting up some structures to give life to her citizens leaving in the area. Nigeria used her large population advantage to claim sovereignty of the territory, though the government of Cameroon accuses the Nigeria government that they took advantage of their large home population and thereby transfer so many Nigerians to live in the Bakassi peninsula, so that it will give them an upper hand in claiming sovereignty of the territory. It can also be justified here that the bulk of the Bakassi population who claimed to be of Nigeria origin, were not willing to lose their territory to Cameroon and so urges the Nigeria government to go to war if it needs arise. Culturally speaking, we can also see that the colonial demarcations of the borders done a great deal to the people, as we can find the Efik people on the side of Nigeria speaking the same language with the Akwaya people in Cameroon. These two tribes have the same cultures, traditional rites and traditional attires during festivities. It cannot be deny here that peoples of the Northwest and Southwest regions of Cameroon have similar cultures with the peoples of Benue, Akwa Ibom, Cross River and Taraba states of Nigeria. So it is obvious that Nigeria based her claim of sovereignty over the territory was as a result of their large population in the area. 5. HOW THE CONFLICT WAS RESOLVED AND MANAGED When Nigerian troops violated the Anglo-German Treaty of 1913, by invading the territory of Rio del Rey in May 16, 1961, they claimed five of their soldiers were killed by the Cameroon soldiers. So in respond, the Shehu Shagari the president of Nigeria made it clear that the Nigerian soldiers were not on the Rio del Rey territory but on the Akwayafe territory and as such demanded an apology from Cameroon for the death soldiers. It can be seen here that both countries resorted to diplomatic means to queue down the growing tensions and somehow the conflict was managed. The government of Cameroon made an official apology on July 1981, and promised to pay reparations to Nigeria. This brought the misunderstanding to an end. But worth noting here, is the fact that Nigeria claimed their soldiers were on the Akwayafe river but not on the Rio del Rey river, meaning they indirectly acknowledged and accept the colonial maritime borders delineated by the 1913 Treaty. This sought of management and resolution of

Use of Technology in Law Enforcement and Against Terrorism :: Technology Essays

Use of Technology in Law Enforcement and Against Terrorism   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Technology has a definite impact not only on our everyday lives but also on the ideologies we pursue or abandon.   This change can be clearly seen as society has progressed through from an agrarian culture through the growing pains of the industrial revolution, and into the current wave, the information wave.   The role of technology was seen as a tool in the agrarian culture and also as a means for physical exploration of humanity's surroundings.   During the industrial revolution that tool, used to better the agrarian age morphed into a guiding force for social change, intellectual idealism, and scientific exploration.   As the industrial age drew to a close, marked by increased warfare and frightening new discoveries, there was a backlash against the ideological representation of technology.   Technology in the information age has become not only a force that produces wonderful new things, but ultimately a tool in the hands of a very flawed and occasiona lly noble society.   The current views on technology are diverse and cover grounds that span from technology being a way to save, to that same technology being a means to an end or power.     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The personification of technology ranges from a way to place power firmly in the hands of the few, to technology being a means for anyone to do things that before required a specialized education.   The publishing liberty of the Internet creates a forum in which any one can be taken seriously; whether they are in truth serious is another discussion.   This liberty of forum is available to anyone with a modicum of knowledge or the desire to gain such knowledge.   This is in direct contrast to the publishing world where it requires a specialized knowledge and education to produce some thing or to become published.   Often the knowledge needs to be combined with a fair amount of luck as well.   Technology has also become a way to put social power into the hands of the few as well.   The existence of surveillance systems, the exorbitant prices of medical matters, and the existence of issues such as the digital divide are all exampl es of technologically based ways to shift a balance of power in an arena.     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As technology is always in a state of flux so are our society's attitudes regarding technology.   There is a definite polarization of issues in the field of

Country Analysis – Myanmar

Myanmar is a resource-rich country and also known as the Asian rice bowl suffers from pervasive government controls, inefficient economic policies, corruption, and rural poverty. The economy suffers from serious macroeconomic imbalances including unpredictable inflation, fiscal deficits, multiple official exchange rates that overvalue the Burmese kyat, and unreliable statistics. In trade activity, Myanmar’s main imports are fabric petroleum products and crude oil, fertilizers, plastics, machinery, transport equipment food products and also construction materials. The major exports of Myanmar are natural gas, wood products, pulses and beans, fish, rice, clothing and jade and gems. On July 2012, the population in Myanmar is said to be 54,584650 people. Several considerations were made in counting and estimating the population including the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS. This can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality, higher death rates, lower population growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected. Most people live in the 40,000-odd villages of the country, while the majority of the urban population resides in the capital city of Rangoon. Among the population engaged in agriculture, 37 percent of the people do not have any land or livestock. Poverty and misery have increased in the past 3 decades. It is estimated in the CIA World Factbook that in1997 23 percent of the Burmese population had incomes that placed them below the poverty line. PRICE STABILITY Inflation is the general increase in the level of price. Each and every country’s government has their own targets for the inflation rate in order to achieve price stability. It is impossible for a certain country to achieve zero level of inflation so an average of 2%-3% inflation is already good enough. The main indicator of price stability is the Consumer Price Index (CPI) which measures the degree of change in price as a whole. Figure 1. 0 The Percentage of Inflation in Myanmar Figure 1. 0 shows the graph of the inflation rate of Myanmar from 2007 to 2011. The year before 2007 shows a very high level of inflation in Myanmar which is around 35%. During that time, Myanmar’s economy is at the peak level. The export of Myanmar at that time was at the highest. The increase in the exports of rice and agricultural product caused demand pull inflation. This is because export is one of the components of the aggregate demand (AD). The high export rate causes the income of the local citizen becomes higher. A high income results in the increase in consumption. The increase in export and consumption which both are the component of AD causes demand pull inflation. To get a clearer view, refer to the graph below. In the contemporary, both of this component is also injection in the economy and causes the injection to become more than leakage. This creates a multiplier effect thus expands Myanmar’s economy. Figure 1. 1 Demand-pull Inflation In the year 2007, the basic commodity prices rose from 30 to 60 percent. At this particular time, the workers demand for more wages. The cost of production will increase thus shifting the short run aggregate supply (SRAS) to the left. This causes cost push inflation to the economy of Myanmar. But instead showing the increase in inflation level, the graph shows a slight inclination in the inflation rate. This is because the government implemented a contractionary policy to Myanmar’s economy. To the worst, the Cyclone Nargis hit Myanmar and this causes a negative growth of inflation to happen at a very high rate. Due to the disaster that happened, the government spending had to be focused on the welfare of the estimated 2. 4 million homeless victims. The money that should be invested on other things had been used for the recovery from the disaster. Meanwhile, Myanmar kept on exporting the rice in order to gain more profit without considering the number of seed that is reduced due to the destruction caused by the cyclone. This causes the production of rice and other agricultural product to be reduced in a great amount due to the disaster that happened. Besides, the length of production factor also will result on a huge shortage of food supply. This unknowingly converts Myanmar from a net rice exporter to importer. The higher amount of import than the export and added with the decrease in investment, also the government spending causes a shift in the AD to the left and results a decrease in the rate of inflation at a dramatic rate. Figure 1. 2 The year 2009-2011shows an increasing trend of inflation in Myanmar. This is when Myanmar enters the recovery phase of its economy. Probably during this phase Myanmar had already recovered from the cyclone and starts to increase their economic activity. More people will get employed and the consumption will increase. At the same time the government also spends a lot to bring back the economy of their country. This will shift the AD to the right thus increasing back the inflation rate. Figure 1. 3 FULL EMPLOYMENT Full employment means that every person in the labor force gets employed. It has become a significant objective for a country because it is closely related to the efficiency in resource allocation and also in achieving non-accelerating inflationary rate of unemployment (NAIRU). Both efficiency in resource allocation and the NAIRU are important to achieve a stable economy. Figure 2. 0 The Unemployment Rate in Myanmar The unemployment rate of Myanmar peaked at the year 2008. This is probably because the Nargis cyclone that hit Myanmar during that year causes death and destruction. The destruction also includes the farms and fields where most of Myanmar citizen works. This is called seasonal unemployment. Furthermore, during the financial crisis, the lack of import demand from other country causes many shutting down of shops and factories such as clothing factories, gemstone polishing and carving workshops, rubber factories and also the magazine and the publishing house. As a result, during that period of time, crimes such as theft and prostitution rate were seemed starting to rise. From 2008-2011, the rate of unemployment shows a decreasing trend. This is probably because of the agricultural sector that already recovered after the disaster that happened had opened a lot of job opportunities. In addition, an economic reform also had been made and training programs also were conducted such as the market opening policy. This increases the availability for the people in the labor force to get employed. The long run aggregate supply (LRAS) curve will shift to the right due to the changes in the government policy and also the education and training that have been made. Figure2. 1 Shift of Long-run Aggregate Supply In Myanmar, the participation of woman in the work force is still low and does not show any significant change in the labor participation which is majority participated by males. This is due to the trend in Myanmar where only male works while the female stays at home. ECONOMIC GROWTH Reviewing back to the economic problem, wants are unlimited but resources are scares. The objective of the economy is to solve this problem. So, economic growth is very important in order to satisfy more wants. Of course, there are several special consideration placed on the economic growth. One of them is the limitation of usage of resources for the future generation to use. Figure 3. 0 Myanmar GDP by-year Chart Overall, the economic growth of Myanmar on 2007-2011 shows an increasing trend. The year 2007-2008 shows the drop in economic growth and afterwards, the years after that show recovery. The world economy crisis that happened in the year 2008 really gave a huge impact on Myanmar economy because Myanmar is highly dependent on trading activities. The GDP of Myanmar that decreases to 1. 2% was not only caused by the economic crisis but also because of the Nargis cyclone that hit Myanmar in middle 2008. The â€Å"Lehman shock† that happened which causes a huge bankruptcy at Japan which is one of the main importer from Myanmar in the same year really affected the GDP of Myanmar. This results a decrease in economic growth of Myanmar due to the decreased size of natural resources caused by the Nargis cyclone, the uncontrolled inflation rate which is also relatively high in 2008 and also the political condition that was not so stable at that particular time. However, Myanmar shows an increased economic growth trend the year afterwards which is from 1. 2% to 5. 6%. This is because the export in Myanmar increases during these years. Due to some political tension, Korea increased their import share towards Myanmar and it became the third largest importer after Japan and Germany. As a result the combined export share for Korea and Japan reached 51. 5% and this trend seems to have become stronger in 2010. For the next year, it kept on growing on a steady rate due to no serious problem occurred. EXTERNAL BALANCE An economy that practices import and export is known as the open economic system. This means there are money going out and also coming in into a certain country. External balance means a balance between money inflow and outflow resulting from a country’s transactions with the rest of the world. It is a record of a country’s transaction in goods, services and assets with the rest of the world. There are three components of external balance which are the current account deficit as a percentage of GDP, net foreign debt as a percentage of GDP and the exchange rate. It is one of the macroeconomic objectives and its target is to achieve enough inflow from foreign country to buy imports and also being able to meet its financial obligation to other country. Current account deficit as a percentage of GDP. The current account measures the inflows and outflows of a country. It is divided to two categories which are the current flows and also the capital flows. The current flow consist of the export and the receipts of income payment as the inflow and the import and the income paid to overseas as the outflow. For the capital flows, the inflow is the foreign investment and the borrowing. The outflows are loan repayment and investment made overseas. Figure 4. 0 Current Account Balance in Myanmar The figure above shows the current account balance of Myanmar as a percentage of GDP. Over the years, it shows a decreasing trend from 2007-2011. However in 2009, it shows a sharp increase until 2010 and it falls back. It is certainly not highly affected by the export and import because referring to the graph below (graph 4. 1 and 4. 2) there is not much difference in the export and imports around these five years. The low value of the current account balance is due to Myanmar’s spending to meet its debt from other country. Graph 4. 3 shows the amount of Myanmar’s debt with other foreign country. Figure 4. 1 Exports of Myanmar Figure 4. 2 Imports of Myanmar Figure 4. 3 External Debt of Myanmar Exchange rate The value of a certain currency indicates how well a certain country is able to manage the financial inflow and outflow. A stable exchange rate indicates that the economy of a country is healthy and promotes investor to see that the country’s production is a worthwhile investment. The factors affecting the currency are highly related to the supply and demand for the currency. Figure 4. 4 The Graph of Supply and Demand for Currency In Myanmar, of course fluctuations of the Burmese Kyat (BK) happen from time to time. The exchange rate for BK is the price or value of one BK expressed in terms of foreign currency. The figure below shows the fluctuating BK throughout the five years period. Figure 4. 5 Myanmar Official Exchange Rate per US($) Over the five years the exchange rate of Myanmar shows a decreasing trend. A great depreciate if BK in the year 2007-2008 is due to the high inflation rate. The increase of the commodity prices decreases Myanmar’s export. Being a country that is very dependent on trading business, the decrease in the demand for Myanmar’s currency causes the AD shifts at a great amount to the left thus depreciating the currency. The depreciating of the currency will probably cause the current account deficit (CAD) of Myanmar to worsen. On the contemporary, the unemployment gap will also become bigger indicating the increasing in the unemployment rate. Figure 4. 5 In the year 2008-2009, Myanmar’s currency shows appreciation. This is due to the rate of inflation in Myanmar that is relatively low at the particular time. The low inflation means the price of local product is cheaper. The cheaper local product will make the local product price to be internationally competitive thus increases the export. The increase in demand for Myanmar’s currency will shift the AD to the right thus appreciate Myanmar’s exchange rate. People will also starting to get employed as the unemployment gap has become smaller. The CAD will expected to improve. Prospect Based on all analysis done, I estimated that Myanmar economic growth would continue growing if the government is very aware and carefully observing the fluctuating rate of inflation. The government must know the right time to implement whether a cotractionary or expansionary policy at the right time. For the full employment, it is the responsibility of the government to distribute and if necessary provide training for the population in order to achieve the full employment target. New rules and regulation and also policy must be implemented so that hard core unemployment, frictional unemployment, hidden unemployment and all other types of unemployment could be reduced. The economic growth of Myanmar is now in quite good position. However, it is unpredictable for something unwanted to happen such as global recession, increase in commodity price and natural disaster. So, economist and the government must take a serious consideration on planning a preparation for the economy to face unwanted situations to happen. For the exchange rate, it is better for Myanmar to maintain the value of Burmese kyat than trying to appreciate or depreciate it due to certain circumstances such as a cold diplomatic relationship with other countries and the unstable political condition inside the country itself. If any action is taken it is worried that a riot or the hampering of foreign investment from other country would happen. However, Myanmar should broaden their vision and observing how other country’s economy works. This is in order for Myanmar to improve its economy and foster a harmonious relationship with other countries abroad. If this could be achieved and be done, it is not impossible for Myanmar to leap up to the first rank in the world for the most high income country but with a low rate of inflation. Conclusion To wrap up, it is quite hard to say whether Myanmar have achieved or not achieved even any of the macroeconomics objectives. Although the economic growth and price stability keeps on fluctuating due to unwanted and also uncontrollable events, Myanmar still manage to overcome the problem or crisis even though still consumes a huge amount of time.

Christian virtues Essay

No general code of conduct covers both of them as if the kingdom of God had dawned before its time, Left-wing political idealists and just war theorists fail to distinguish these two hands of God and try to reconcile the tension between them, often at the expense of the state. They try to impose Christian virtues such as love and mercy upon the state but fail to recognize the depravity of our present lot and the need for the state to restrain its evils. Communism might have found its place in the early church with Ð ° people who were prepared to share all their possessions (Acts 2.43, 44; 4. 32), but this economic system does not work in the unregenerate world of laziness and selfishness. Pacifism might have served the church and its members well as Ð ° witness to divine grace and mercy, but the state would abdicate its responsibilities before God if it did not bear the sword and protect its citizens from criminals. It was Thomas Aquinas, not Augustine, who developed just war theory along the natural law tradition. Augustine did not discriminate clear, universal principles in order to declare Ð ° society or its wars just. He saw Ð ° distinct dichotomy between private behavior, which might refuse the use of the sword in self-defense, and the public right of the state to defend itself for the good of the community. Machiavelli agreed and spoke of two moralities subsisting side-by-side, the morality of the individual soul and the morality of the city. Some actions, while not virtuous from Ð ° private or Christian views, are still absolutely necessary if one wishes to defend the Republic. Protestant theologians tend to agree with this assessment. Emil Brunner did not believe that we could impose Ð ° version of absolute justice on Ð ° world darkened with sin. In the old Testament God did not impose Ð ° ban on divorce ‘because of the hardness of their hearts’, even if ‘it was not this way from the beginning’ and absolute justice would demand otherwise. Relative justice is all we can hope for in the realm of society and Ð ° world fallen from its original image. (Amit 2003 127) Reinhold Niebuhr rejected the possibility of doing well without causing some evil. In the real world, one must become tainted with its evil and fight force with force. So useful have terrorist attacks been to advancing the neocon agenda that hawks are intent on provoking more. As William Arkin wrote in the Los Angeles Times, Rumsfeld’s Defense Science Board recommended in 2002 the creation of Ð ° super secret â€Å"Proactive, Preemptive Operations Group (P2OG) to bring together CIA and military covert action, information warfare, intelligence, and cover and deception. Among other things, this body would launch secret operations aimed at `stimulating reactions’ among terrorists and states possessing weapons of mass destruction—that is, for instance, prodding terrorist cells into action and exposing themselves to `quick-response’ attacks by U. S. forces. Such tactics would †¦`signal to harboring states that their sovereignty will be at risk. † (Amy 2004 38) Another argument can be made that Islamist extremism, however it arose, can be combated more effectively if Ð ° larger number of citizens have Ð ° stake in non-extremist, increasingly democratized political systems. More freedom should be created to foster enhanced political participation and human investment in Middle Eastern states. Ð  greater degree of participation may occur without the implementation of other requisites of democracy. If our definition of freedom is free elections, Ð ° free press, and labor unions—it is absent in Saudi Arabia. Supporters of the Kingdom point to other methods of creating balance and justice in society, whereby the royal family protects the citizens and defends their values in exchange for their loyalty. While this may smack of feudalism to the reader, such bargains were fulfilled in Islamic history through the Ottoman concept of the circle of equity; self-governance of religious minorities; and the recognition of local, tribal, and familial authorities. Today’s Middle Eastern rulers are facing similar questions about the ways that democratization will alter earlier understandings of leadership or threaten its longevity. â€Å" (Sherifa 2005 28)

Westward Settlement essays

Westward Settlement essays The westward settlement created a dangerous area of political and social conflict between the backcountry settlers, and the eastern settlers. Economic, governmental and ethnic differences played a major role in the continuing conflicts between the east and west. There were many clashes in the early 1760s, between the backcountry settlers and the eastern settlers, from the Paxton Boys to the North and South Carolina Regulations. The westward settlement created a dangerous area of political conflict. Backcountry settlers were isolated more than other colonials. There was a lack of transportation, usually a days ride to the nearest courthouse, tavern, or church. These back country settlers were mostly settlers whom had little money to pay their taxes, and they did not like being governed by officials who were chosen by assemblies so far away. Back country settlers were also economically isolated; many parts were cut off from water transport because they were located above the fall line. Backcountry settlers did not often transport crops or livestock because it was too expensive. Since most backcountry settlers did not have money, they were unable to purchase slaves or servants. Most families were only able to grow enough to feed their own families. As the western communities grew, they needed additional funds to build roads and bridges for creating institutions for local self-government. Eastern colonials were not very helpful; they were slow to set up new colonies in the west, when counties were set up the areas had large lots of land but few representatives. With no continuous local leadership, backcountry farmers who owned had more land than others, or owned a slave were put to the tasks overseeing public order, and were representatives for colonial assemblies. Most of these men were poorly educated and had no experience. With so little authority in the backcountry, settlers had a more aggressive behavior...

Marketing Communications Notes Essays

Marketing Communications Notes Essays Marketing Communications Notes Paper Marketing Communications Notes Paper pan-Latin America, pan-Middle East, pan-Africa, and pan-Atlantic. European advertising would likely be used in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, while the Asian ads would be placed in Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines. Recognizing the economic power of these tigers, Gillette clusters Singapore, Hong Kong and Taiwan together, and recognizing the sheer numbers and consumer power, treats Japan, China and India as separate clusters. Gillette believes it can identify the same purchase behaviours, consumer habits and needs in regions or countries linked by culture (cultural clusters), justifying this approach (Jain 1996, 555). 20 MKT B366 Marketing Communications Activity 1. 4 Your company has adopted an IMC approach to marketing its products in Hong Kong. The Managing Director has asked your advice as to whether it needs to consider IMC issues when it expands into Singapore and New Zealand. Unit 1 21 Moral and ethical issues in marketing Should cigarettes and alcohol be advertised? If so, to whom? Would it be acceptable to have cigarettes aimed at children, featuring Teletubbies with the brand name ‘My First Cigarettes’ or Bob the Builder alcohol drink boxes? What about sales promotions where free alcohol and cigarette samples are given out? Again, if so, to whom? Would such promotions held in a schoolyard or at a school festival be acceptable? What about loyalty programmes that reward patrons with merchandise based on the amount they gamble or the number of firearms they purchase? Such promotions do occur. I was once given a sample pack of cigarettes targeted to women on a busy street in Tokyo. Bass Taverns, which has 800 pubs across Britain, began a loyalty scheme in the late 1990’s for pub regulars where every pound spent earned one point with every 25 points earning a one pound discount on food and drink. The loyalty card uses thermal imaging so the glass of beer on the front of the card ‘fills up’ as points accrue. Believe it or not, patrons asked Bass Taverns to raise the price of their beer - at the regular price of one pound fortynine, regulars complained that they fell two pence short of accumulating three points when they bought a round of two lagers! These are the types of questions faced by marketers on a regular basis as they try to determine what is acceptable, where it would be acceptable recognizing that different cultures have different values and where the line has to be drawn. As you read the following section in Clow and Baack, recognize that it is written by American authors who are discussing what is perceived to be acceptable both ethically and morally in the United States. Does everything they say apply in Hong Kong or are there any exceptions or things missing? Recognize as well that ethics and morals are personal, so what one individual finds to be totally immoral or unethical could be considered perfectly acceptable or borderline by another. Reading Clow and Baack, 416–19. Businesses have to make a profit to stay in business. To make a profit, businesses must generate sales and control expenses. While most would agree that companies that act ethically, morally and responsibly have a greater chance of long-term success, the temptation is always there to cut corners to reduce costs or generate faster sales, to counter the competition or to take advantage of a particular group of consumers - remember the quote at the beginning of this unit. Clow and Baack define morals as ‘the beliefs or principles that individuals hold concerning what is ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ (p. 416). Morals 22 MKT B366 Marketing Communications direct our decisions and behaviours. Ethics are the ‘moral principles that serve as guidelines for both individuals and organizations’ (p. 416), helping both individuals and organizations to ‘draw the line’ between what is acceptable and what is unacceptable. In the textbook, Clow and Blaack discuss the need for social responsibility and formalized training. In the following sections, the issues of ethics will be described in more detail, including codes of ethics, ethical criticisms faced by marketers, ethics across cultures, and the relationship between ethics and purchase behaviour. An exploration of these issues helps shape the IMC programme. You may be interested in taking the online ethics tutorials offered by the United States Direct Marketing Association (USDMA) at . Codes of ethics Organizations and professions also adopt codes of ethics to direct the behaviour of their members. As Appendices 1. 1–1. 3 of this unit, you will find the following marketing codes of ethics. The Chartered Institute of Marketing (2003) ‘General regulations for the provision of professional standards, ethics and disciplinary procedures in accordance with royal charter bye-laws 16–19’, United Kingdom Canadian Marketing Associat ion (2004) ‘Code of ethics and standards of practice’. The revised CMA ‘Code of ethics and standards of practice’ will take effect on 1 January 2007. A completed information package can be downloaded from Hong Kong Direct Marketing Association (HKDMA) (2002) ‘Code of ethics’. Please take a quick look at these codes and notice how each of them codes of ethics bind their members. Notice how some of the components of these codes are quite specific. For example, in the HKDMA code, item 4 requires that ‘when price comparisons are used, they must be factual and verifiable’. The Canadian Marketing Association’s code has a section concerning marketing to children and specific regulations for different types of media such as television and print. The Chartered Institute of Marketing’s code has a very explicit section concerning its Disciplinary Committee and how complaints against members will be processed. Codes of practice The HKDMA has also adopted a code of practice for the ‘Use of personal data in direct marketing’. The use of personal data, especially the onselling of membership and mailing lists, has been quite a Unit 1 23 contentious issue in many countries, exacerbated by increased consumer participation on the Internet. The code of practice has been designed to ensure that HKDMA members comply with the Personal Data (Privacy) Ordinance of the Hong Kong Government. The HKDMA code of practice can be accessed on their website at . As commercial traffic increases on the Internet, expect to see codes of ethics developed specifically for online marketing activities, especially in the sensitive area of online marketing to children. Ethical criticisms faced by marketers On page 417 of your textbook, some of the major specific ethical criticisms faced by marketers are listed. You may find it a useful exercise to ask friends or family if they agree with the criticisms and if they can provide recent Hong Kong examples from their own experiences. Do not be surprised if you find a divergence of opinions, which further reinforces that morals and ethics are personal. If you were to ask a group of ten marketers if they agree that these are bona fide criticisms, would you expect their opinions to be consistent with each other and with those expressed by your friends and family? What about government officials, especially those charged with regulating marketing activities? What about consumers, marketers and government officials in different countries? Recognize that consumers, marketers and government officials, both in Hong Kong and in countries around the world would each approach these ethical issues from slightly different perspectives and that these different perspectives may be reflected in their judgements as to what is ethical and what is unethical. Recognize as well that these criticisms reflect value judgements - what is offensive to one individual may be quite acceptable to another. Let’s look a little closer at these criticisms: Marketing causes people to buy more than they can afford and overemphasizes materialism A student, when asked to define marketing on an exam, once provided me with the oft quoted ‘Marketing is about buying things you don’t need, with money you don’t have, to impress people you don’t know’. Not an answer that would be found in many marketing texts or that would get many marks on an exam. And certainly not what the American Marketing Association intended in their slogan ‘Marketing makes a good life better’. However, there would be many who would assert that there is more than a grain of truth in the student’s definition - remember the quote from the beginning of this unit about finding ‘suckers’ and persistent salespeople. There is no doubt that there are consumers who overspend - ever increasing credit card debt and business overdrafts attest to this fact. There is also no doubt that there are consumers who seek instant gratification and, believing advertising 24 MKT B366 Marketing Communications claims, overspend, either as a lifestyle or an occasional indulgence. Those opposed to globalization often point to what they perceive to be frivolous spending - say a Michael Jordon t-shirt purchased by a consumer in Africa existing on subsistence wages - as evidence of the power of advertising to direct consumer behaviours. Critics contend that advertisements portray products in such a way that not purchasing them leads to dissatisfaction. The debate really boils down to power and who is more powerful: are marketers more powerful than consumers, able to manipulate, overcome objections and stimulate behaviour? Or are consumers more powerful than marketers, able to exercise free will and their own decision making powers? What do you believe? What about your friends and family? Marketing increases the costs of goods and services You don’t need to be an economist to realize that marketing costs money - for example, the millions of US dollars needed to get a 15 second spot in the SuperBowl telecast. And you don’t need to be an accountant to realize that companies cannot absorb the total cost of marketing, while still making a profit and staying in business. At least some of the costs of marketing must be passed on to consumers in the sticker price. Clow and Baack point out that advertising and other forms of promotion serve to establish and enhance brand images, providing consumers with psychological benefits in addition to the physical benefits. For some consumers, the extra money paid is worth it to get a brand label or shop in a prestigious boutique. L’Oreal hair colouring acknowledges this fact in their slogan ‘More expensive yes, but I’m worth it! ’ Marketing proponents would point out that consumers have choice. They can purchase the fake Rolex watch, Chanel purse or Yves Saint Laurent tie at the Ladies Market; an unbranded watch, purse or tie at a hawker’s stall, or the real thing at a boutique in Prince’s Square or Festival Walk. Given Hong Kong’s love affair with brands and logos, where fakes are considered better than ‘no names’, it would appear that local consumers believe that the psychological benefits, most created and supported by promotion, are ‘worth it’. Marketing perpetuates stereotypes A debate has raged for years within the advertising community as to the power of advertising and its true role within society. Does it reflect the values, attitudes, morals and behaviours of the environments within which it operates †¦ or does it shape the values, attitudes, morals and behaviours of those who are exposed to it? Those who suggest that advertising ‘reflects’ the local culture or country believe that ads must ‘speak the local language’ and that if they don’t they would offend consumers who would purchase competitive products. Those who suggest that advertising ‘shapes’ local cultures and countries believe that how groups are portrayed in ads - stereotypical portrayal of women, minorities, the elderly or men - determines how these groups are treated and continue to be treated in society. Which side do you favour? Ask friends and family their opinions - you are guaranteed a lively debate. Unit 1 25 Researchers, academics and practitioners concerned about the increase in eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia have looked at how young women, especially in Western countries, form their visions of body perfection. Many point to the portrayal of women in the media as a primary influence. The women featured in fashion magazines and television ads all have perfect figures, hair and facial features - often achieved by liposuction, plastic surgery, silicone implants or very sophisticated photography techniques. These same women are presented in the ‘after’ pictures so favoured by exercise and diet companies. Consumers are encouraged to be dissatisfied with their current appearance, purchasing advertised products that promise them the results portrayed in the ‘before’ and ‘after’ pictures. As Charles Revson, of Revlon Cosmetics, said, cosmetic manufacturers sell ‘hope in a bottle’. Consumers are led to believe ‘If I buy Estee Lauder products, I’ll look just like Elizabeth Hurley or Cindy Crawford’. However, they soon find out that even Cindy Crawford doesn’t look like Cindy Crawford without an army of hair stylists, makeup artists, wardrobe consultants, personal trainers and talented photographers. (Cindy Crawford has publicly stated ‘even I don’t look like Cindy Crawford when I wake up in the morning’! )Gossip magazines love to publish photos of celebrities without their makeup, illustrating just how different their public personae is to reality. Marketing creates offensive advertisements Some countries have ‘good taste’ or ‘public morals’ clauses within their legislation which allow them to respond to specific consumer complaints. For example, Seiko had to change its slogan ‘Man invented time; Seiko perfected it’ to ‘Man invented timekeeping; Seiko perfected it’ in Malaysia, when a Muslim holy man complained that God had invented time. Weet-bix, a breakfast cereal, faced public opposition in the late 1990s, eventually removing an outdoor billboard in Dunedin, New Zealand which showed beer being poured over the cereal with the slogan ‘As Kiwi as it gets’. In an interesting case in Australia in 1999, Toyota was given the right to use the word ‘bugger’ in its ads despite consumer complaints when the Advertising Council of Australia determined that ‘bugger’ was an acceptable word in everyday Australian communication. One company that walks a continuous ‘fine line’ relative to ‘good taste’ is Benetton, whose ads have featured urban violence and a dying AIDS patient. Benetton’s ads featuring a black woman breast feeding a white child, a black child made to look like a devil with the white child made to look like an angel, and a black and white man handcuffed together were attacked by US civil rights groups for promoting white racial domination. Why does Benetton continue to place these ads? Simply, they create interest among other media sources and lots of coffee break chatter. Can you think of examples of ads that have been pulled in Hong Kong after complaints about poor taste? 26 MKT B366 Marketing Communications Marketing creates advertisements linked to bad habits and intimate subjects Most countries now have legislation concerning the advertising of alcohol, cigarettes, children’s products, intimate personal care products and the professions. For example, in Canada, advertisements cannot show alcohol actually being consumed, presenting a creative challenge to advertising executives. In Queensland, Australia, after May 1, 2002, all cigarette advertising and promotions are banned. In most countries, intimate personal care items such as condoms and feminine hygiene products cannot be shown actually being used, again presenting challenges to the creatives. Advertising to children is unethical In Hong Kong, children may not be used in advertisements for alcoholic liquor or tobacco. Nor can an advertisement encourage children to ask parents for the product, imply that children who do not own the product are inferior, or encourage children to enter strange places or converse with strangers to collect coupons (Hong Kong Television and Entertainment Licensing Authority). Marketers prepare deceptive and misleading advertisements Marketers have to ensure they comply with local laws and regulations that dictate what is legal and illegal in terms of advertising content and placement. Most countries have well developed legislation and enforcement procedures concerning deceptive and misleading advertising. Advertising professional services is unethical Debate over allowing lawyers in the United States to advertise raged for many years. Most were concerned about the tactics that might be used and how they would affect the way the profession was perceived in society. During a recent trip to Canada, I saw a late night advertisement for a lawyer in Detroit who claimed ‘I’m an SOB but I’m your SOB’ - perhaps the industry was justified in their concern. Salespeople use deceptive practices What is your opinion of salespeople in general? Ask friends and family their opinions. For many consumers, the stereotype of the ‘unethical, high pressure used car salesperson’ applies to all salespeople. It is a common criticism that salespeople use high pressure, often deceptive tactics to get consumers to purchase the brand that is offering them the largest incentive. Many tourists have commented on the practices used by salespeople on the Golden Mile in Nathan Road, especially in terms of product features and international warranties. The Hong Kong Tourist Association hopes that tourists will patronize stores displaying their ‘red junk’ logos, indicating that the trader is a member of the HKTA and subject to its standards. Unit 1 27 What is interesting and somewhat ironic, is that while critics talk about unethical marketers, few comment on unethical consumers. The following list (Schiffman et al. 2001, 15) details some unethical consumer practices - can you think of others? shoplifting switching price tags returning clothing that has been worn abusing products and returning them as damaged goods redeeming coupons without the requisite purchase redeeming coupons that have expired returning clothing bought at full price and demanding a refund for the sales price differential returning products bought at sale and demanding the full-price refund stealing belts from store clothing cutting buttons off store merchandise returning partially used products for full store credit abusing warranty or unconditional guarantee privileges damaging merchandise in a store and then demanding a sales discount copying copyrighted materials (e. g. books, videotapes, computer software) without permission. Have you seen evidence or heard stories of such unethical behaviour? In the following reading, questions about ethics were asked of Hong Kong managers. You might find it interesting to answer these questions yourself, using a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being strongly agree and 5 being strongly disagree. Compare your answers to those of friends and family. Then compare all the answers with those found by Au and Tse. Reading 1. 1 (OUHK E-Library) Au, A and Tse, A (2001) ‘Marketing ethics and behavioural predispositions of Chinese managers in SMEs in Hong Kong’, Journal of Small Business Management, 39(3): 272. This article is available in the OUHK E-Library E-Reserve. (See the Course Guide section ‘E-Library E-Reserve readings’ for more information. ) 28 MKT B366 Marketing Communications Ethics across cultures The next article presents a good discussion of the ethical systems of China and the USA. How could international marketers in Hong Kong use the information contained in this article? Reading 1. 2 (OUHK E-Library) Pitta, D, Fung, H G and Isberg, S (1999) ‘Ethical issues across cultures: managing the differing perspectives of China and the USA’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, 16(3): 240–56. This article is available in the OUHK E-Library E-Reserve. (See the Course Guide section ‘E-Library E-Reserve readings’ for more information. ) Ethics and purchase behaviour The following reading asks whether a company’s ethics influence consumers purchasing behaviour. Do you think Hong Kong consumers are influenced by the ethical behaviour of a company? Have you seen evidence in Hong Kong of consumers boycotting companies accused of unethical practices? Please refer to Activity 1. 5 and then read the article by Carrigan and Attalla. Activity 1. 5 Your Managing Director has asked you to read the Carrigan and Attalla article ‘The myth of the ethical consumer - do ethics matter in purchase behaviour? ’ (Reading 1. 3) and advise him as to your opinion about whether consumers consider the ethical position of a company in their purchase decisions. Reading 1. 3 (OUHK E-Library) Carrigan, M and Attalla, A (2001) ‘The myth of the ethical consumer - do ethics matter in purchase behaviour’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, 18(7): 560–77. This article is available in the OUHK E-Library E-Reserve. (See the Course Guide section ‘E-Library E-Reserve readings’ for more information. ) Unit 1 29 Regulation of marketing communications by government Governments around the world have enacted legislation to control marketing efforts. Much of that legislation has been concerned with marketing communications, especially aspects of the promotional mix. We will discuss applicable international regulations throughout the course as we address each component. In the following reading, Clow and Baack look at how marketing communications are regulated in the United States. This does not form part of assessable material and we will be providing Hong Kong specific information to supplement this reading. However, it is worth reading to see how the world’s largest group of marketers are controlled. Reading Clow and Baack, 408–14. Hong Kong Government regulation of marketing The Hong Kong Government has enacted a large number of Ordinances that cover marketing activities from the Control of Obscene and Indecent Articles Ordinance to the Undesirable Medical Advertisements Ordinance to the Sale of Goods Ordinance and Consumer Goods Safety Ordinance. As these carry the force of law, it is expected that Hong Kong marketers will comply. A full list of these Ordinances can be found on the Hong Kong Government website at . Absent from these ordinances however is specific legislation concerning deceptive, misleading and unfair practices in consumer transactions, which forms the cornerstone for consumer protection in countries such as Canada, the UK, Australia, the US and China. The Consumer Council Of particular interest is the Consumer Council Ordinance 1977 which formally incorporated the Consumer Council, established in 1974 to address public concern about inflationary prices and profiteering. The Council is funded by the Hong Kong Government via an annual Government subvention and its members are appointed by the Chief Executive of the SAR but retains total independence to formulate and implement policies. The Consumer Council ‘protects and promotes the interest of consumers of goods and services and purchasers, mortgagors and lessees of immovable property’ (www. consumer. org. hk/aboutus/ about_e. htm). 30 MKT B366 Marketing Communications The Council routinely conducts research on consumer policy providing advice to government, engages in consumer education, handles consumer complaints, monitors trade practices, encourages business and professional organizations to establish codes of practice and mediates disputes between consumers and service suppliers. The Council will also publicly name Hong Kong businesses that persist in malpractices despite Council intervention. The following reading is a press release that details the activities of the Consumer Council during 2006. Reading 1. 4 Consumer Council (2006) Press release, with appendix ‘Consumer complaint statistics for year 2004 to 2006’, January 4, at (Accessed on 18 July 2006). Notice the increase in consumer complaints, especially telecommunications ervices and equipment, and the Council’s efforts to encourage the adoption of codes of practice and consumer awareness of their rights. Activity 1. 6 You are discussing the role of governments in r egulating marketing practices with some fellow marketers from Canada and Australia. The Australian says ‘I can’t believe that Hong Kong does not have legislation concerning deceptive or misleading advertising or other deceptive marketplace practices - we’ve had it in Australia for years. ’ How would you respond? Activity 1. 7 Parents, teachers and governments have long been concerned about the impact of violence in television, movies and video games on children. Imagine that research published in The Scientist magazine indicated that children who watch more than one hour of television per day show an increased propensity toward violent acts and a desensitisation towards the portrayal of violence (e. g. laughing, enjoying or ignoring violent acts). Video games, many targeted specifically towards children, often advertise the level of violence in the game, knowing that more violent games sell better than less violent games. Unit 1 31 a Do you believe that advertising higher levels of violence breaches ethical guidelines? Do you believe that the advertising of video games specifically targeted to children should be regulated by the government? b 32 MKT B366 Marketing Communications Social responsibility ‘We have an obligation to give back to the communities that give us so much’ - Ray Kroc, founder of McDonald’s, 1955 ‘Our customers are proud to have us in the neighbourhood because we are a socially responsible company the world should be a better place because of McDonald’s. ’ - Chairman and CEO, Jack Greenberg, McDonald’s Vision Statement, 2000 (www. mcdonalds. com. /corporate/social/social. html) Why does Mc Donalds issue statements like the ones above? Why does McDonald’s strive to be a socially responsible company by sponsoring sports teams, providing free products to seniors, and supporting a broad range of charitable endeavours? In this section of the unit, we will look at how and why socially responsible marketing is used by marketers. The following reading discusses the concept of social responsibility and the benefits to be gained from engaging in positive and socially responsible marketing activities. Reading Clow and Baack, 384. Clow and Baack define social responsibility as ‘the obligation an organization has to be ethical, accountable and reactive to the needs of society’ (p. 384). Notice how they use the term ‘organization’ which not only includes businesses but non-profit organizations such as charities, hospitals and schools as well as governments and their services such as the police and the judiciary. The concept of social responsibility is based on the belief that society and organizations enjoy a symbiotic relationship - what is good for one is good for the other, what is bad for one is bad for the other. In the business world, social responsibility dictates that businesses not only determine the needs of consumers and satisfy them better than the competition but do so in a way that maintains the well-being of both the consumer and society as a whole. Socially responsible firms are more likely to survive over the long term as their activities generate good publicity and customer loyalty. Positive and socially responsible marketing activities Beyond doing no harm (not engaging in negative or destructive behaviour such as discrimination or pollution) companies now realize the benefits from engaging in positive actions. Two of these are of particular interest: Unit 1 33 cause-related marketing and green marketing. Cause-related marketing In cause-related marketing (CRM), a firm contributes to a particular cause, such as a charity, in direct proportion to specific consumer actions such as the purchase of the company’s product. Take the example of Sunraysia, which donates 25 cents to the Hong Kong Cancer Fund for every purchase of Suraysia prune juice. Reading Clow and Baack, 384–87. It is necessary to draw a distinction between CRM and corporate philanthropy because although they share some similarities as charitable activities, they differ in their objectives. Polonsky and Speed (2001, 1363) point out that corporate philanthropy is ‘founded on altruism, and involves the firm making a contribution of cash or kind, without an expectation of a tied benefit’. CRM, on the other hand is like sponsorship, and is ‘commercially motivated and involves the â€Å"giving† firm acquiring and leveraging the right to be associated with the recipient’ (Polonsky and Speed 2001, 1365). An example of sponsorship is the Standard Chartered Bank’s sponsorship of the Hong Kong Marathon. The following table summarizes the key features of corporate philanthropy, sponsorship and CRM programmes. Table 1. 1 Key features of corporate philanthropy, sponsorship and CRM programmes Activity Funding Resources Use of resources Corporate philanthropy Sponsorship Fixed None No commercial use made of association Fixed Association Association is used in attempt to change customer attitudes, behavioural intentions and behaviours Attitudes (positioning), behavioural intentions (loyalty and preference) and behaviours (sales) Indirect sales impact Exclusively to the sponsor CRM programme Variable possible capped Association Association is used to create a customer offer, linked to a specific contribution to the cause Behaviours (sales), behavioural intentions (loyalty and preference) and attitudes (positioning) Direct sales impact Split between the cause and the sponsor Key market outcomes Sales impact None None Revenue flows None (Polonsky and Speed 2001, 1365) 34 MKT B366 Marketing Communications According to Shimp (2000, 620), companies that engage in CRM can: enhance corporate or brand images; thwart negative publicity; generate incremental sales; increase brand awareness; reach new customer segments; broaden their customer base; and increase a brand’s retail merchandising activity. Companies are able to achieve these objectives because consumers hold favourable attitudes towards CRM efforts. One study reported that 83% of Americans feel more positive about companies that support causes they value and that 77% favour long-term corporate involvement with causes rather than short-term promotions (Shimp 2000, 621). One UK study (Brabbs 2000) found that: 88% of survey respondents had heard of CRM programmes, with the average UK adult being aware of at least four specific programmes; 87% of respondents reported that CRM positively affected their perceptions or behaviours; 48% of those who had participated in a CRM reported changing their purchase behaviour as a result of the CRM programme, either switching brands, increasing usage or trying new products/services; 80% of consumers surveyed indicated that CRM programmes would positively impact on their future attitudes and behaviours; and 67% believed that more companies should become involved with CRM, with 50% preferring to be told about CRM activities through television advertising, 42% through in-store advertising and 18% through print ads. Another UK study (Adkins 2002) reported that: 81% of consumers, when faced with equal price and quality, would more likely purchase the product associated with a cause they believe it; and 66% of consu mers would switch brands while 57% would change retail outlets to favour companies engaged in CRM, price and quality being equal. If similar studies were done in Hong Kong, do you think the statistics would vary dramatically? If so, why? It is important to ensure that there is a good fit between the charity and the target market for the product or service. For example, Avon is a major international supporter of Breast Cancer research with its Pink Unit 1 35 Ribbon promotions (www. avoncrusade. com). Would you consider this an appropriate fit? Given that Avon’s primary target market is female, the answer would be yes. You are likely familiar with specific Hong Kong examples of companies engaging in cause-related marketing efforts for charities. You may have participated in one of McDonald’s McHappy Days promotions where local celebrities serve customers and a percentage of sales is donated to Ronald McDonald Children’s Charities, it’s own charity division. This is an appropriate fit when you consider that one of McDonald’s main (if not its main) target market is children. Since its establishment in Hong Kong in 1988, this charity has raised millions in funding for local education and arts programmes such as the Spastic Association’s Kwai Sing School, civic and social services such as the Hong Kong Society for the Deaf, and health care and medical research programmes such as the Hong Kong Anti-Cancer Society. The first Ronald McDonald House where the parents of critically ill children can stay while their children are in hospital opened in Hong Kong in 1996, funded in large part by McHappy Day promotions. All administrative costs for operating the charity are donated by McDonald’s Restaurants (HK) Limited, so all funds raised directly benefit the selected charities. If you visit the McDonald’s Hong Kong website (www. mcdonalds. com), and read the press clippings, you will see that McDonald’s also runs a global fundraising campaign called ‘World Children’s Day’ to help children in need around the world. Last year in Hong Kong, the World Children’s Day at McDonald’s 2005 programme ran from October 23 to November 20, with a Charity Kids Marathon, a Charity Sale, a Concert and a Gala Dinner. Funds raised from these events were donated to Ronald McDonald House Charities and the Hong Kong Committee for UNICEF. The Charity Kids Marathon attracted 1,000 kids. Immediately after the Marathon, a Charity Sale was held at McDonald’s. For every purchase of an Extra Value Meal, McDonald’s donated 30 cents to the beneficiaries. Customers were also encouraged to purchase ‘I helped give a hand’ stickers. On 19 November 2005, Hong Kong’s most popular pop singers, including Leo Ku, Jan Lamb, Joey Yung, Eason Chan, Anthony Wong and Miriam Yeung, performed at the World Children’s Day at McDonald’s 2005 Concert to raise millions of dollars. A spectacular charity Gala Dinner on 20 November 2005 marked the culmination of World Children’s Day at McDonald’s 2005. A total of HK$3. million was raised from various McDonald’s initiatives for World Children’s Day 2005 to support children’s programmes run by Ronald McDonald’s House Charities (RMHC) and the Hong Kong Committee for UNICEF, benefiting children in Hong Kong and aro und the globe. Endangered wildlife and organizations such as the WWF have also benefited greatly from cause-related marketing. For example, in the mid-1990’s the Mainland Cheese company in New Zealand engaged in cause-related marketing in support of the Yellow-Eyed Penguin, a native species facing habitat destruction. Each block of Mainland cheese had a label that could be cut off and submitted in groups of 10, generating a corporate donation. They also created a children’s club, the Mainland Penguin Pal Club, where in addition to the donation, children’s label submissions also entitled the child to selected penguin 36 MKT B366 Marketing Communications related merchandise. Children’s club members also received educational newsletters concerning penguin conservation efforts. Cadbury’s Australia donates a portion of the price of every chocolate bilby sold to the Save the Bilby Fund - bilbies, which are similar to rabbits, are indigenous to Australia but on the verge of extinction. In the mid 1990’s, Taikoo Sugar entered into a joint promotion with the World Wide Fund for Nature Hong Kong in support of the establishment of the Hoi Ha Wan Marine Park. Taikoo Sugar printed corporate sponsors names and the WWF panda logo on one side of their ugar packets, with a photo of endangered species on the other. 40% of the HK $5,000 sponsorship fee went directly to the WWF HK while the remainder was us ed to discount the sugar packets to encourage increased purchases by the general public. In this case, everyone benefited - Taikoo Sugar through increased sales, corporate sponsors by having their name linked with the WWF HK and increased public exposure, the WWF HK through increased donations - and the people of Hong Kong through the protection of the fragile marine environment of Sai Kung. Even efforts such as these are met with criticism as some contend that they are not social responsibility but public relations. They contend that these companies are not altruistic - truly concerned about the charities and their recipients - and do not do anything under the label of ‘social responsibility’ that does not have a potential benefit in terms of profit. When we consider that corporations are in the business of making sales and profits, it becomes obvious that there has to be some benefit back to the corporation or they would not be able to justify the costs. Whether it is to reinforce the company’s image as a good corporate citizen, improve consumer attitudes, or achieve sales related objectives (sales must be higher due to the positive link with the charity to justify the lower profit per unit after the donation), their activities must have a potential pay-off. For example, Colgate-Palmolive compares sales figures for the three weeks following any CRM campaigns in aid of the Starlight Foundation (grants wishes to seriously ill children) with sales figures from the previous six months to determine incremental profit directly related to its CRM activities (Shimp 2000, 621). However, it must also be remembered that there is a benefit to the company’s publics as well. Without corporate involvement, many of the cultural, social and charity services that enrich our lives would not be possible. Without corporate donations, many non-profit organizations would cease to exist or would have to reduce their level of community involvement. The following example illustrates how both corporations and charities benefit from cause-related marketing efforts. Cause-related marketing pays dividends for American Express When it became apparent that the Staute of Liberty required restoring, American Express (AMEX) jumped at the opportunity of becoming involved. However, this was not a gesture of pure philanthropy to the American people. The company had three specific objectives: Unit 1 37 1 2 3 To increase credit card usage among its current card holders. To encourage the acceptance of the card among merchants. To increase the company’s profile and derive image benefits that would lead to new members. The scheme involved AMEX giving one cent to the restoration fund for each US-based transaction, and $1 for each new card issued. The project raised $1. 7m for the project, while the company reported an increase in its credit card usage of 2. % on the prvious year, a greater acceptance of the card by merchants, and a public image of being more ‘responsible, public-spirited and patriotic’. (Meenaghan 1998, 14, cited in Pickton and Broderick 2001, 526) Activity 1. 8 Read the following case: In 2001, Projet Rescousse (Project Rescue) launched Rescousse brand beer in Quebec, Canada, followed in March 2002 by entry into the Ontario, Canada beer market. For each bottle of beer sold, RJ Brewers and its representative Premier Brands contributes a fixed amount to Wildlife Habitat Canada to preserve endangered species. Beer labels featured paintings of endangered species by a well known Canadian wildlife artist. In 2001, sales of the beer in Quebec raised more than $24,000 Cdn for endangered species. The Ontario launch was funded, in part, by a $20,000 Cdn grant from Environment Canada (federal government). A spokesperson for Mothers Against Drunk Driving, an organization promoting responsible alcohol consumption among young people stated ‘The federal government has no role in promoting an alcoholic beverage. The government’s role is to regulate, not promote alcohol. ’ A spokesperson for Environment Canada said ‘the project in no way endorses any form of alcohol abuse’ (Canada has extensive legislation concerning the sale and promotion of alcohol. For example, alcohol is sold t the retail level through provincial government controlled agencies only and, as mentioned earlier, advertisements cannot show alcohol actually being consumed. ) (Yourk 2002) Discuss this situation from the perspectives of ethics, social responsibility and cause-related marketing. Discu ss the impact of a comparable programme in Hong Kong. 38 MKT B366 Marketing Communications Green marketing Green marketing refers to the ‘development and promotion of products that are environmentally safe’ (Clow and Baack, p. 387). What started as a fringe political movement in Europe has now become mainstream as more consumers become aware of environmental issues and express willingness to purchase environmentally friendly products, even if prices are higher. In their article ‘Targeting consumers who are willing to pay more for environmentally friendly products’, Laroche, Bergeron and Barbaro-Forleo report that recent surveys reveal that significant numbers of consumers are willing to spend up to 40% more for a ‘green’ product. This compares to 67% of consumers who reported a willingness to pay 5–10% more for ‘green’ products in 1989. Their research indicated that consumers willing to spend more for environmentally friendly products tend to be female, married, with at least one child living at home, put the welfare of others before themselves, believe that environmental problems are severe and place high importance on security. They also refuse to purchase products from companies accused of being polluters. Loblaw’s, a Canadian supermarket, was at the vanguard of green marketing in the early 1990’s, creating a line of environmentally friendly products under the brand name ‘Green’ with the slogan ‘Something can be done! ’ and packed in recycled materials. In their first year, ‘Green’ products generated nearly $52 million Canadian. One of the most interesting examples was the Green lightbulb that, over its extended life, would save consumers approximately $32 Cdn in energy and bulb replacement. Even though priced at ten times the price of conventional bulbs, Loblaws could not keep them in stock, so great was consumer demand. As an aside, Loblaw’s was one of the first supermarkets to charge for plastic carrier bags, hoping to encourage consumers to use more environmentally friendly bags or at least recycle plastic carrier bags. How do you think such an initiative would be viewed in Hong Kong? Another company that has made concern for the environment part of their corporate mission is The Body Shop which uses natural ingredients, earth-friendly manufacturing methods and environmentally friendly packaging. Information cards, window displays and in-store videos are used to educate consumers about the social and environmental effects of their purchasing decisions. Next time you visit the Body Shop, look for evidence of their commitment to the environment. Notice their range of endangered species soaps for children. When both Sydney (Summer 2000) and Beijing (Summer 2008) put in their winning bids to host The Olympic Games, a significant part of their appeal was their pledge to operate a ‘clean, green games’. Beijing had to take measures such as restricting the vehicles it allowed on its roads in the run-up to the Olympics to ensure it could fulfil its ‘green’ Olympic commitments. Unit 1 39 Have you seen evidence of green marketing in Hong Kong? You may find it interesting to survey friends and colleagues concerning their attitudes towards green marketing and its potential impact on their purchase behaviours. Activity 1. 9 Recent articles in the Hong Kong press have commented on the deteriorating state of Hong Kong’s harbour and waterways, in particular the impact on marine life of discarded consumer packaging. While your company was not named specifically, mention was made that your industry was a major offender and that a large proportion of the consumer packaging found in the water came from products such as yours. In a meeting with the accountants who have just crunched the numbers as to the increased costs of changing to more environmentally friendly packaging, the question is raised as to whether ‘green marketing’ efforts are really worth it. Discuss possible responses. 40 MKT B366 Marketing Communications Clow and Baack companion website The textbook also comes with companion website at (password not required). The student section of the website contains true/false and multiple-choice questions per chapter. These are self-marking and contain both hints and coaching comments. These questions are useful for testing your grasp of basic core concepts, which can be answered as many times per session and over as many sessions as desired. These questions can be particularly useful during revision as they will quickly tell you which concepts you understand and where review is needed. Essay questions and critical thinking exercises, many including Internet links are also provided per chapter, directly linked to the material covered. Unit 1 41 Summary Let’s go back to the objectives from the beginning of the unit and see how the material presented relates and where material relevant to each objective is found in the text. 1 Illustrate the communication process, using a diagram, and apply it in a given marketing situation. You should be able to provide a diagram that includes the key aspects of the communication process of sender/receiver, encoding/decoding, transmission device/communication channel, feedback and noise. Your answer should illustrate your understanding of what makes for effective communication and what can act as barriers to the process. Clow and Baack discuss communication on pages 26–32. Define integrated marketing communications, and discuss how it applies specifically to the development of promotional strategies. Clow and Baack define IMC as ‘the coordination and integration of all marketing communication tools, avenues and sources within a company into a seamless programme that maximises the impact on consumers and other end users at a minimal cost’ (p. 32). When applied to promotion, IMC results in ‘the brand speaking with one voice’. IMC is discussed on pages 32–37. 3 Describe, with pertinent Hong Kong examples, the major components of the promotional mix. Your answer should include advertising, sales promotion, personal selling, public relations, direct and online marketing. You should be able to provide Hong Kong specific examples. The components of the promotional mix were covered in B250 and are discussed throughout the text. 4 Explain the role played by the promotion mix in the overall marketing mix. Clow and Baack briefly discuss the role of promotion within the overall marketing mix on page 33. You should be able to discuss how promotion relates to the product, distribution (place) and pricing strategies and how each should be consistent with the other and aimed at the target market as per discussions in B250. 5 Outline the key components of integrated marketing communications. Clow and Baack discuss the key components of IMC on pages 32– 37. Figure 1. provides a useful overview of the key components and how they are presented in the text. 6 Evaluate the impact of information technology, changes in channel power, increases in competition, brand parity, consumer information integration and declining effectiveness of mass-media 42 MKT B366 Mar keting Communications advertising on the value placed on IMC programmes, providing Hong Kong specific examples. Your answer should illustrate how each of these factors have had a positive impact on the value placed on IMC programmes by marketers. You should be able to illustrate each of these factors with Hong Kong specific examples. These factors are discussed on pages 37–41 in the text. Discuss the phrase ‘think globally, act locally’ as it applies to globally integrated marketing communications programmes and illustrate using Hong Kong specific examples. Companies that ‘think globally, act locally’ use standardized marketing and communications strategies as much as possible (‘think globally’), recognizing that cultural and marketplace differences may require some adaptation on a country by country basis (‘act locally’). Clow and Baack discuss GIMC on page 41. 8 Evaluate critically the moral and ethical criticisms of marke ting communications. Many of the major ethical criticisms faced by marketers are discussed in the unit. You should be able to critically evaluate whether these criticisms are bona fide, advancing your own opinion. Explore the role to be played by governments in regulating marketing practices, providing Hong Kong specific examples. The unit notes provide information concerning Hong Kong laws as well as details about the Consumer Council’s activities. 10 Argue the case for a company adopting positive and socially responsible marketing activities and illustrate using Hong Kong examples. Your answer should illustrate that you understand the benefits in terms of brand image, consumer loyalty and sales performance that can result from positive and socially responsible marketing efforts such as cause-related marketing and green marketing efforts. Unit 1 43 References Adkins, S (2002) ‘Cause related marketing - profitable partnerships’ at (Accessed 26 Mar 2002). Au, A and Tse, A (2001) ‘Marketing ethics and behavioural predispositions of Chinese managers in SMEs in Hong Kong’, Journal of Small Business Management, 39(3): 272. Brabbs, C (2000) ‘Is there profit in CRM tie-ups? ’, Marketing, 16 Nov, 27. Carrigan, M and Attalla, A (2001) ‘The myth of the ethical consumer - do ethics matter in purchase behaviour’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, 18(7): 560–77. Clow, K E and Baack, D (2002) Integrated Advertising, Promotion, and Marketing Communications, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Hill, C (2000) International Business, Competing in the Global Marketplace, Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill. Jain, S (1996) International Marketing Management, Ohio: South-Western College Publishing. Keegan, W (1999) Global Marketing Management, New Jersey: Prentice Hall International. Kotler, P, Ang, S H, Leong, S M and Tan, C C (1996) Marketing Management - An Asian Perspective, Singapore: Prentice Hall. Laroche, M, Bergeron, J and Barbaro-Forleo, G (2001) ‘Targeting consumers who are willing to pay more for environmentally friendly products’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, 18(6): 503–20. Meenaghan, T (1998) ‘Current developments and future directions in sponsorship’, International Journal of Advertising, 17(1): 3–28. Pickton, D and Broderick, A (2001) Integrated Marketing Communications, London: Prentice Hall. Pitta, D, Fung, H-G and Isberg, S (1999) ‘Ethical issues across cultures: managing the differing perspectives of China and the USA’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, 16(3): 240–56. Polonsky, M and Speed, R (2001) ‘Linking sponsorship and cause related marketing: complementarities and conflicts’, European Journal of Marketing, 35(11/12): 1361–85. Schiffman, L, Bednall, D, Cowley, E, O’Cass, A, Watson, J and Kanuk, L (2001) Consumer Behaviour, Sydney: Pearson Education. Shimp, T (2000) Advertising and Promotion: Supplemental Aspects of Integrated Marketing Communications, Texas: The Dryden Press. 44 MKT B366 Marketing Communications Strauss, J and Frost, R (2001) Marketing on the Internet, 2nd edn, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Yourk, D (2002) ‘Message in a beer bottle’, The Globe and Mail, 27 Mar (Accessed online). Unit 1 45 Suggested answers to activities Activity 1. 1 The sender was HMV and its staff. The receivers were in-store customers, in-store browsers, concert and musical gathering attendees and the general public. The encoding process would have been the creation of the application forms, in-store promotions, advertisements and newsletter as well as the verbal communication from HMV staff. Various communication channels were used: in-store signs and displays for in-store browsers, personal face to face communication for in-store customers and concert attendees; and advertisements in the mass media for the general public. The decoding process would have occurred when receivers read the applications/in-store signs/newsletter or advertisements or listened to HMV staff. Feedback could take many different forms from going into the store specifically to ‘sign up’, to accepting or refusing to join when asked by staff, to comparing the number of vouchers handed out with the number redeemed to monitoring the exclusive members’ only special offers. Noise could also take many forms, from the advertising clutter in the newspapers/ magazines, the sensory overload in the store (all the signs/posters and music playing) to the sales and special offerings (including comparable programmes) from all competing retailers. Activity 1. 2 The expression is just a quick way of reinforcing that all forms of communication about a company’s brand must convey the same message to consumers. Many assume that the expression refers only to promotion - the most visible form of communication with consumers. It is important to remember however that product, place and pricing strategies also communicate messages to consumers. For example, the price charged for a particular product communicates quality information to consumers (high price = high quality; low price = low quality), helps consumers determine value for money decisions and reinforces the product’s position relative to the competition (e. g. igher or lower priced). You should remember from your introductory marketing course that all four components of the marketing mix - product, place, price and promotion - must be internally consistent (e. g. the price charged must reflect the features offered in the product) and aimed squarely at the intended target m arket. The promotion strategy must be consistent with the product, place and price strategies and each aspect of the promotional strategy (advertising, sales promotion, personal selling, public relations, direct and online marketing) must be internally consistent. This expression also reinforces the key feature of IMC, which is that all forms